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What Country Is Home to Three Types of Camels Related to the Llama?

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Species of wooly domesticated mammal

Not to be confused with Lama, a Tibetan Buddhist teacher.

Llama
Llamas, Vernagt-Stausee, Italy.jpg

Conservation condition

Domesticated

Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family unit: Camelidae
Genus: Lama
Species:

L. glama

Binomial proper noun
Lama glama

(Linnaeus, 1758)
Lama glama Vicugna pacos range.png
Domestic llama and alpaca range[1]
Synonyms

Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758

The llama (; Spanish pronunciation: [ˈʎama]) (Lama glama) is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used equally a meat and pack creature by Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era.

Llamas are social animals and live with others every bit a herd. Their wool is soft and contains only a small amount of lanolin.[2] Llamas can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their body weight for viii to 13 km (five–8 miles).[3] The name llama (in the by also spelled "lama" or "glama") was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians.[4]

The ancestors of llamas are thought to have originated from the Great Plains of North America about xl million years agone, and after migrated to Southward America about three one thousand thousand years ago during the Great American Interchange. By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America.[iii] As of 2007, in that location were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America and over 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas, descended from progenitors imported late in the 20th century, in the United States and Canada.[5]

In Aymara mythology llamas are important beings. The Heavenly Llama is said to drink water from the ocean and urinates as it rains.[6] Co-ordinate to Aymara eschatology, llamas will return to the water springs and lagoons where they come from at the stop of time.[6]

Classification

Lamoids, or llamas (as they are more by and large known as a group), consist of the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna, prev. Lama vicugna), guanaco (Lama guanicoe), Suri alpaca, and Huacaya alpaca (Vicugna pacos, prev. Lama guanicoe pacos), and the domestic llama (Lama glama). Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while llamas and alpacas exist only as domesticated animals.[vii] Although early on writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae (1758) of Carl Linnaeus.[eight] They were, still, separated by Georges Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama forth with the guanaco.[9] DNA analysis has confirmed that the guanaco is the wild ancestor of the llama, while the vicuña is the wild ancestor of the alpaca; the latter ii were placed in the genus Vicugna.[10]

The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct department of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, chosen Tylopoda, or "bump-footed", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consist of a unmarried family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina (pigs), the Tragulina (chevrotains), the Pecora (ruminants), and the Whippomorpha (hippos and cetaceans, which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic, if not traditional, standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sis taxa, continuing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, merely in others showing special modifications non institute in any of the other taxa.[ citation needed ]

The 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, every bit interpreted past paleontologists Joseph Leidy, Edward Drinker Cope, and Othniel Charles Marsh, aided understanding of the early history of this family.[ citation needed ] Llamas were not ever confined to South America; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains and in Central America. Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. Due north American llamas are categorized equally a single extinct genus, Hemiauchenia. Llama-similar animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago, in modernistic-twenty-four hours California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, and Florida.[xi]

The camelid lineage has a adept fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated, mod species back through early Miocene forms. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them every bit camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls.[12] No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that N America was the original domicile of camelids, and that the ancestors of Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge from Northward America. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to Due south America as part of the Great American Interchange, where they evolved further. Meanwhile, Due north American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene.[13]

Characteristics

A full-grown llama can attain a height of one.7 to 1.viii thou (v ft 7 in to 5 ft eleven in) at the superlative of the caput, and tin weigh between 130 and 272 kg (287 and 600 lb).[14] At maturity, males can counterbalance 94.74 kg, while females tin weigh 102.27 kg.[15] At nativity, a baby llama (called a cria) tin weigh between 9 and 14 kg (20 and 31 lb). Llamas typically live for fifteen to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more.[sixteen] [17] [18] [ better source needed ]

The post-obit characteristics apply specially to llamas. Dentition of adults: incisors i / 3 canines 1 / ane , premolars two / ii , molars 3 / 3 ; full 32. In the upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved truthful canine in the anterior role of the maxilla.[nineteen] The isolated canine-like premolar that follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar serial, which are in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the first virtually rudimentary) and iii broad molars, constructed more often than not like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated infinitesimal and ofttimes deciduous uncomplicated conical premolar; then a contiguous series of i premolar and 3 molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge.

Names of llama torso parts: one ears – two poll – 3 withers – iv back – v hip – six croup – 7 base of operations of tail – 8 tail – ix buttock – x hock – 11 metatarsal gland – 12 heel – 13 cannon bone – xiv gaskin – 15 stifle articulation – 16 flank – 17 butt – 18 elbow – 19 pastern – xx fetlock – 21 Genu – 22 Breast – 23 point of shoulder – 24 shoulder – 25 throat – 26 cheek or jowl – 27 muzzle

The skull more often than not resembles that of Camelus, the larger brain-cavity and orbits, and less-developed cranial ridges existence due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined past the premaxilla.

Vertebrae:

  • cervical 7,
  • dorsal 12,
  • lumbar vii,
  • sacral 4,
  • caudal xv to 20.

The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a singled-out plantar pad. The tail is short, and fibre is long, woolly and soft.

In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general advent and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should exist considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.

The question is complicated by the circumstance of the great majority of individuals that have come under ascertainment being either in a completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors that have previously been domesticated, a state that tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of Due south America are recognized as distinct species, though with difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics.

These are:

  • the llama, Lama glama (Linnaeus);
  • the alpaca, Vicugna pacos (Linnaeus);
  • the guanaco (from the Quechua huanaco), Lama guanicoe (Müller); and
  • the vicuña, Vicugna vicugna (Molina)

The llama and alpaca are only known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and of many colors, being often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild. The guanaco is endangered; it has a most uniform light-brown color, passing into white beneath.

The guanaco and vicuña certainly differ from each other: The vicuña is smaller, more slender in its proportions, and has a shorter head than the guanaco.

The vicuña lives in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mount range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far due south equally the middle of Bolivia. Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid.

Vicuña cobweb is extremely frail and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, simply the quantity that each animal produces is small. Alpacas are primarily descended from wild vicuña ancestors, while domesticated llamas are descended primarily from wild guanaco ancestors, although a considerable amount of hybridization betwixt the two species has occurred.

Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer caput, and curved ears. Alpaca fiber is generally more expensive, merely not ever more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent colour throughout the torso. The most apparent visual difference betwixt llamas and camels is that camels have a hump or humps and llamas practice not.

Llamas are not ruminants, pseudo-ruminants, or modified ruminants.[20] They practice accept a complex three-compartment breadbasket that allows them to digest lower quality, high cellulose foods. The stomach compartments allow for fermentation of tough nutrient stuffs, followed by regurgitation and re-chewing. Ruminants (cows, sheep, goats) have four compartments, whereas llamas have only 3 stomach compartments: the rumen, omasum, and abomasum.

In improver, the llama (and other camelids) have an extremely long and complex large intestine (colon). The large intestine'due south function in digestion is to reabsorb water, vitamins and electrolytes from food waste material that is passing through it. The length of the llama'due south colon allows it to survive on much less water than other animals. This is a major advantage in arid climates where they live.[21]

Reproduction

Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for a large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators.[22] Through the act of mating, the female person releases an egg and is ofttimes fertilized on the kickoff effort. Female llamas do not go into estrus ("rut").[23]

Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at unlike rates. Females reach puberty at about 12 months onetime; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age.[24]

Mating

Llamas mate with in a kush (lying down) position, which is fairly unusual in a large animate being. They mate for an extended time (xx–45 minutes), besides unusual in a large animal.[25]

Gestation

The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) practice not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue that does not reach exterior of the mouth more xiii millimetres ( i⁄2 inch). Rather, they volition nuzzle and hum to their newborns.[26]

Crias

A cria (from Spanish for "baby") is the name for a baby llama, alpaca, vicuña, or guanaco. Crias are typically born with all the females of the herd gathering effectually, in an try to protect against the male llamas and potential predators. Llamas requite birth standing. Nascency is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than thirty minutes. Most births take place between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours. This may increment cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. This birthing pattern is speculated to be a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Crias are upwards and standing, walking and attempting to suckle inside the first hour after birth.[27] [28] [29] Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and table salt and college in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female person llama will only produce virtually 60 millilitres (2 US fluid ounces) of milk at a time when she gives milk, then the cria must suckle oftentimes to receive the nutrients it requires.[thirty]

Convenance methods

In harem mating, the male person is left with females near of the year.

For field mating, a female is turned out into a field with a male llama and left at that place for some period of time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor, but the least useful in terms of prediction of a probable birth engagement. An ultrasound test tin can exist performed, and together with the exposure dates, a ameliorate idea of when the cria is expected tin be adamant.

Hand mating is the almost efficient method, but requires the most piece of work on the part of the human involved. A male and female person llama are put into the aforementioned pen and mating is monitored. They are then separated and re-mated every other day until one or the other refuses the mating. Usually, one can go far two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate a female more once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each mating and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the mating is not successful within two to 3 weeks, the female is mated again.

Diet

Options for feeding llamas are quite wide; a broad diversity of commercial and subcontract-based feeds are available. The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required. Immature, actively growing llamas require a greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals considering of their smaller digestive tract capacities.[31]

Estimated daily requirements[ description needed (what units?)] of bromgrass hay, alfalfa hay and corn silage on an as-fed and 100% dry out matter basis for llamas from 22 to 550 pounds.[32]
Body weight
(lb) 		Bromgrass Alfalfa Corn silage
(as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry thing) (every bit fed) (dry out affair)
22 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 one.5 0.four
44 ane.3 one.1 0.9 0.8 two.6 0.vii
88 ii.1 1.9 i.5 ane.3 4.3 1.2
110 two.6 2.3 1.7 1.6 5.2 i.four
165 3.4 3.1 2.3 ii.1 6.9 1.nine
275 5.0 4.5 three.4 iii.1 x.1 2.8
385 6.4 five.vii 4.iii iii.9 12.9 3.6
495 7.8 vii.0 five.3 iv.eight 15.eight 4.4
550 8.5 seven.6 v.7 5.2 17.0 iv.8

Beliefs

Llamas that are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead later weaning and are very friendly and pleasant to be effectually. They are extremely curious and most will approach people easily. All the same, llamas that are canteen-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely hard to handle when mature, when they volition begin to treat humans as they care for each other, which is characterized by bouts of spitting, kick and neck wrestling.[33]

Llamas have started showing up in nursing homes and hospitals as certified therapy animals. Rojo the Llama, located in the Pacific Northwest was certified in 2008. The Mayo Dispensary says animal-assisted therapy tin can reduce hurting, low, feet, and fatigue. This blazon of therapy is growing in popularity, and there are several organizations throughout the United States that participate. [34]

When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and do sometimes spit at each other as a mode of disciplining lower-ranked llamas in the herd. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They tin always move upward or down in the social ladder past picking pocket-size fights. This is usually done betwixt males to run into which will go ascendant. Their fights are visually dramatic, with spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling and kicking, mainly to knock the other off rest. The females are unremarkably just seen spitting as a ways of decision-making other herd members. One may decide how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more than irritated the llama is, the further dorsum into each of the three stomach compartments information technology will try to draw materials from for its spit.

While the social structure might always be changing, they alive every bit a family and they do have intendance of each other. If one notices a foreign noise or feels threatened, an alarm call - a loud, shrill sound which rhythmically rises and falls - is sent out and all others become alert. They volition often hum to each other as a form of communication.

The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going "mwa" (/mwaʰ/) is frequently a sign of fear or anger. Unhappy or agitated llamas volition lay their ears back, while ears being perked up is a sign of happiness or curiosity.

An "orgle" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout copulation.[35] [36]

Guard behavior

Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early on 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then. Some would even use them to guard their smaller cousins, the alpaca.[37] [38] They are used about commonly in the western regions of the United States, where larger predators, such as coyotes and feral dogs, are prevalent. Typically, a single gelding (castrated male person) is used.

Enquiry suggests the use of multiple baby-sit llamas is not as effective as one. Multiple males tend to bail with i some other, rather than with the livestock, and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of ii years of historic period bonds closely with its new charges and is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas appear to bail more apace to sheep or goats if they are introduced just prior to lambing. Many sheep and goat producers signal a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs.

Using llamas as guards has reduced the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each yr more than exceeds the purchase cost and annual maintenance of a llama. Although not every llama is suited to the job, almost are a feasible, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and fiddling care.[39] [ better source needed ]

Fiber

Llamas have a fine undercoat, which can be used for handicrafts and garments. The coarser outer baby-sit hair is used for rugs, wall-hangings and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many dissimilar colors ranging from white or grayness to reddish-chocolate-brown, brown, dark brown and black.

Average diameter of some of the finest, natural fibers[forty]
Creature Fiber bore
(micrometres)
Vicuña half dozen–10
Alpaca (Suri) 10–15
Muskox (Qiviut) eleven–13
Merino sheep 12–20
Angora rabbit (Angora wool) 13
Cashmere caprine animal (Cashmere wool) xv–nineteen
Yak (Yak cobweb) xv–19
Camel (Camel hair) 16–25
Guanaco xvi–xviii
Llama (Tapada) 20–30
Chinchilla 21
Angora goat (Mohair) 25–45
Huacaya alpaca 27.7
Llama (Ccara) thirty–twoscore

Medical uses

Doctors and researches accept determined that llamas possess antibodies that are well suited to care for certain diseases.[41] Scientists have been studying the way llamas might contribute to the fight confronting coronaviruses, including MERS and SARS-CoV-2 (which causes COVID-nineteen).[42] [43]

History of domestication

Another Moche sculpture, dated to 100–300 Advertizement (Early Intermediate Period) from the Lombards Museum

This sculpture, originating from the Chancay Valley and adjacent Chillón Drainage region (Late Intermediate Period), captures the llama'south natural inquisitiveness.[44] The Walters Art Museum.

Pre-Incan cultures

Scholar Alex Chepstow-Brawny has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agronomics was merely possible because of the employ of llama dung equally fertilizer.[45]

The Moche people frequently placed llamas and llama parts in the burials of important people, as offerings or provisions for the afterlife.[46] The Moche of pre-Columbian Republic of peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics.

Inca Empire

In the Inca Empire, llamas were the merely beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated past the Inca had long traditions of llama herding. For the Inca nobility, the llama was of symbolic significance, and llama figures were often buried with the dead.[47] In Southward America, llamas are still used as beasts of brunt, as well as for the production of fiber and meat.[48]

The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the class of a multicolored llama.[49]

Carl Troll has argued that the large numbers of llamas found in the southern Peruvian highlands were an of import factor in the rise of the Inca Empire.[fifty] Information technology is worth considering the maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the greatest distribution of alpacas and llamas in Pre-Hispanic America.[51] The link betwixt the Andean biomes of puna and páramo, llama pastoralism and the Inca land is a matter of research.[52]

Spanish Empire

The first epitome of llamas in Europe, 1553

One of the main uses for llamas at the fourth dimension of the Spanish conquest was to bring down ore from the mines in the mountains.[53] Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his twenty-four hour period, as many as 300,000 were employed in the transport of produce from the Potosí mines alone, but since the introduction of horses, mules, and donkeys, the importance of the llama as a beast of burden has greatly diminished.[54]

According to Juan Ignacio Molina, the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen observed the use of hueques (possibly a llama type) by native Mapuches of Mocha Island as plow animals in 1614.[55]

In Republic of chile hueque populations declined towards extinction in the 16th and 17th century beingness replaced by European livestock.[56] The causes of its extinction are not clear[56] but it is known that the introduction of sheep caused some competition among both domestic species.[57] Anecdotal prove of the mid-17th century prove that both species coexisted simply suggests that in that location were many more sheep than hueques.[57] The reject of hueques reached a point in the late 18th century when simply the Mapuche from Mariquina and Huequén next to Angol raised the brute.[57]

The states

Llamas were first imported into the Usa in the tardily 1800s as zoo exhibits. Restrictions on importation of livestock from Southward America due to hoof and mouth disease, combined with lack of commercial interest, resulted in the number of llamas staying low until the tardily 20th century. In the 1970s, interest in llamas equally livestock began to grow, and the number of llamas increased equally farmers bred and produced an increasing number of animals.[58] Both the price and number of llamas in the US climbed quickly in the 1980s and 1990s. With niggling market for llama cobweb or meat in the US, and the value of guard llamas limited, the primary value in llamas was in breeding more animals, a archetype sign of a speculative bubble in agriculture. Past 2002, at that place were almost 145,000 llamas in the US according to the U.s. Department of Agronomics, and animals sold for as much as $220,000. Still, the lack of any end market for the animals resulted in a crash in both llama prices and the number of llamas; the Cracking Recession further dried upwards investment capital, and the number of llamas in the United states of america began to refuse as fewer animals were bred and older animals died of old age. Past 2017, the number of llamas in the US had dropped below 40,000.[59] A similar speculative chimera was experienced with the closely related alpaca, which burst shortly after the llama bubble.[60] [61]

Civilization

Being an important animal and long standing cultural icon in South America, Llamas gained in recent history cultural prominence in Western culture.[62]

For instance The Sims game series has extensively used Llamas as game elements. Also the programming linguistic communication Perl with its and so-called Llama volume has been associated with Llamas.

Encounter also

  • Alpaca
  • Cama, a hybrid between a llama and a camel
  • Grass Mud Horse, a parody originating from Mainland China in 2009 that features the alpaca and llama
  • Guanaco
  • Baby-sit llama, llamas used as livestock guardians
  • Lamoid
  • Llama hiking
  • The Emperor's New Groove, a 2000 blithe Disney motion-picture show where an Incan emperor gets turned into a llama.

Notes

  1. ^ Daniel W. Gade, Nature and culture in the Andes, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1999, p. 104
  2. ^ Eveline. "Is Alpaca Wool Hypoallergenic? (Lanolin Gratis)". Yanantin Alpaca . Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  3. ^ a b "Llama". Oklahoma Land Academy. 25 June 2007.
  4. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, "llama"
  5. ^ Southward Central Llama Association (22 Jan 2009). "Llama Facts 2".
  6. ^ a b Montecino Aguirre, Sonia (2015). "Llamas". Mitos de Chile: Enciclopedia de seres, apariciones y encantos (in Spanish). Catalonia. p. 415. ISBN978-956-324-375-8.
  7. ^ Perry, Roger (1977). Wonders of Llamas. Dodd, Mead & Visitor. p. 7. ISBN0-396-07460-10.
  8. ^ Murray East. Fowler (1998). Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids. Wiley-Blackwell. p. ane. ISBN0-8138-0397-vii.
  9. ^ "Lama". Integrated Taxonomic Data System. Retrieved v Jan 2013.
  10. ^ Wheeler, Dr Jane; Miranda Kadwell; Matilde Fernandez; Helen F. Stanley; Ricardo Baldi; Raul Rosadio; Michael W. Bruford (December 2001). "Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca". Proceedings of the Regal Club B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1485): 2575–2584. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1774. PMC1088918. PMID 11749713. 0962-8452 (Newspaper) 1471–2954 (Online).
  11. ^ Kurtén, Björn; Anderson, Elaine (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 307. ISBN0231037333.
  12. ^ Prothero, Donald R (sixteen April 2009). "Evolutionary Transitions in the Fossil Record of Terrestrial Hoofed Mammals". Development: Education and Outreach. 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Part of Springer Nature. 2 (ii): 289–302. doi:x.1007/s12052-009-0136-i. S2CID 32344744.
  13. ^ Grayson, Donald Yard. (1991). "Belatedly Pleistocene mammalian extinctions in N America: Taxonomy, chronology, and explanations". Journal of Earth Prehistory. Springer Netherlands. 5 (3): 193–231. doi:10.1007/BF00974990. S2CID 162363534.
  14. ^ Frequently Asked Questions - Blueish Moon Ranch Alpacas
  15. ^ S American camelids research. Volume ii. Eduardo Frank, Marco Antonini, Oscar Toro. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers. 2008. ISBN978-90-8686-648-9. OCLC 846966060. {{cite volume}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  16. ^ "Llama characteristics". Nose-n-Toes. 25 June 2007.
  17. ^ "Llama facts 1". Llamas of Atlanta. 25 June 2007. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 5 Baronial 2014.
  18. ^ "Llama FAQ". Twin Creeks Llamas. 25 June 2007.
  19. ^ "Dental beefcake of llamas". www.vivo.colostate.edu. Colorado State Academy.
  20. ^ Fowler, Murray Due east. (one October 2016). "Camelids are not ruminants". Verterian Key (Veterinary Medicine Insight Engine). Chapter 46. Retrieved 29 May 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-condition (link)
  21. ^ Amsel, Sheri (thirteen November 2017). "Llama thoracic and abdominal organs (right view)". Exploring Nature.
  22. ^ Chen, B.10., Yuen, Z.X. and Pan, G.W. (1985). "Semen-induced ovulation in the bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus)". J. Reprod. Fertil. 74 (2): 335–339. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0740335. PMID 3900379. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Greta Stamberg & Derek Wilson (12 April 2007). "Induced Ovulation". Llamapaedia. Archived from the original on 12 April 2007.
  24. ^ L. W. Johnson (17 April 2007). "Llama reproduction". College of Veterinarian Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado Land University, Fort Collins. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health. 89 (11): 219–22. PMID 7232.
  25. ^ Chris Cebra; David Eastward. Anderson; Ahmed Tibary; Robert J. Van Saun; LaRue Willard Johnson (15 February 2014). Llama and Alpaca Care: Medicine, Surgery, Reproduction, Nutrition, and Herd Health. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN978-0-323-24291-2.
  26. ^ "The llama reproductive cycle". LlamaWeb. 17 April 2007. Archived from the original on iii March 2007.
  27. ^ The Department of Veterninary Clinical Sciences at Ohio Country Academy (2002). Camelid Medicine, Surgery, and Reproduction for Veterinarians. Office 2.
  28. ^ Long, Patrick O. (1996). Llama & Alpaca Neonatal Care. p. 112. ISBN0-9646618-3-vii.
  29. ^ Birutta, Gale (1997). A Guide to Raising Llamas. p. 327. ISBN0-88266-954-0.
  30. ^ Linda March. "Llamas: A Different Kind of Pet". University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine. Archived from the original on 11 Dec 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
  31. ^ Randy Sell (17 April 2007). "Llama". Department of Agricultural Economics, Due north Dakota State University.
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External links

  • "Llama". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 829.
  • "Llamapaedia Orgle Sound". Archived from the original (AIFF) on 30 October 2007.
  • Llamas Close Up – slideshow by Life magazine
  • "Llama". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llama

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